N-hydroxysuccinimide

1-TRIMETHYL-2-CYCLOHEXENYL-1-PENTEN-3-ONE

ASCORBYL TETRAISOPALMITATE

A vitamin C derivative. Studies show that is might be effective in reducing hyperpigmentation, but there are no studies confirming that it is effectively converted into the bioavailable form of Vitamin C in skin. It is not clear how this derivative compares in effectiveness to the topical application of bioavailable form of vitamin C (L-ascorbic acid)

CAMELLIA SINENSIS LEAF EXTRACT

Can contain potent anti-oxidant compounds (abbreviated ECG, GCG, EGC, and EGCG) that might help protect the skin from free radicals. Can help calm down inflammation and has some anti-bacterial properties. Unfortunately, these antioxidants are unstable and lose their effectiveness very quickly in products. The concentration of the antioxidant compounds in the extract also tends to be low to be effective in topical formulation

ASCORBYL GLUCOSIDE

A vitamin C derivative that is more stable but less potent than pure form of vitamin C. Has a potential to boost collagen production, nutralise free radicals and reduce hyperpigmentation, but the required concentration is likely to be much higher than for the pure form of vitamin C, limiting the ingredient's effectiveness in products

ACETYL GLUCOSAMINE

An effective moisturizing ingredient that also has been shown to be effective in evening out the skin tone and reducing hyperpigmentation. It can help somewhat reduce wrinkles in skin

GLUCOSAMINE HCL

Might be able to stimulate production of skin's natural moisturizing compounds such as hyaluronic acid. Could be helpful for evening the skin tone.

GLYCINE SOJA SEED EXTRACT

An emollient that helps soften the skin. Might be somewhat helpful in evening the skin tone.

GLYCOLIC ACID

An alpha-hydroxy acid (AHA) that helps to remove the dead skin cells on the surface of the skin reveling a more even, smoother complexation. It is also able to stimulate collagen production with long-term use. Could help to reduce pore congestion. It can be irritating to the skin. Apply sunscreen daily if using products with glycolic acid

GLYCYRRHIZA GLABRA ROOT EXTRACT

A plant extract that can help lighten the skin and calm down inflammation. Might be helpful in neutralizing free radicals

LACTIC ACID

An exfoliating and moisturizing alpha-hydroxy acid (AHA). Typically causes less irritation than other AHAs, for example, glycolic acid. At high concentrations (about 15%), lactic acid can help reduce lines and wrinkles. Recent studies show that lactic acid can support the "good" bacteria living on skin's surface (healthy skin microbiom)

NIACINAMIDE

Is proven to be effective in reducing blemishes, evening out skin tone and helping to improve lines and wrinkles. It helps the skin to repair sun damage, calm down inflammation and keep maintain good levels of moisture

PALMITOYL GRAPEVINE SHOOT EXTRACT

An extract from grape plant that can contain a potent antioxidant resveratrol. The manufacturer (Caudalie) claims that this particular extract is effective against hyperpigmentation. This effect would be explained by the resveratrol content. However, there is no independent research confirming the manufacturer's claim beside the potential for anti-oxidant activity

PISUM SATIVUM EXTRACT

Might be helpful in protecting skin collagen and elastin from breaking down but solid research is lacking

MAGNESIUM ASCORBYL PHOSPHATE

A derivative of vitamin C that is more stable, but less bioavailable than the pure form of vitamin C. It does not penetrate the skin well, but has been shown to convert to pure vitamin C once in skin. It can be helpful in stimulating collagen production and lightening the skin tone, but the required concentration is likely to be very high

STEARYL GLYCYRRHETINATE

A fatty acid derived from licorice. Works as an emollient and can help calm down inflammation

DIPOTASSIUM GLYCYRRHIZATE

A salt derived from licorice. Works as an emollient to soften the upper layer of the skin and can help calm down inflammation. Might be helpful for skin lightening

GLYCYRRHETINIC ACID

Active compound of licorice root. Works to calm down inflammation, as an anti-oxidant, and might be helpful in lightening the skin and reducing hyperpigmentation

AMINOPROPYL ASCORBYL PHOSPHATE

A more stable but less potent derivative of vitamin C. It can help neautralize free radicals and even out the skin tone if used in high enough concentration (required levels are likely to be much higher than for pure vitamin C, and solid studies are lacking at the moment)

RETINYL PALMITATE

Three steps removed from the active form of vitamin A - retinoic acid. To have an effect in the skin, it first needs to be converted twice to become the retinoic acid. This means it is less potent than retinol, but could also be less irritating. Once converted to the retinoic acid in the skin, it helps against all signs of aging, improves skin cell turnover and helps fight blemishes and clogged pores. However, in many cosmetic formulations, it is used in a concentration that is too low to have the full effect

HYDROXYPINACOLONE RETINOATE

A derivative of the most potent form of vitamin A, retinoic acid. The ingredient can be sold under name Granactive Retinoid. Note that if a skincare brand discloses the concentration of Granactive Retinoid in a product, the concentration refers to a diluted form of Hydroxypinacolone Retinoate: 1% of Granactive Retinoid corresponds to 0.1% of Hydroxypinacolone Retinoate. Hydroxypinacolone Retinoate (HPR) is a unique derivative of retinoic acid because it can directly work in the skin and does not require additional conversion steps. According to studies done by the manufacturer on models of human skin (not real people), this derivative is more effective than other cosmetic versions of retinoids (such as retinol, retinaldehyde, and retinyl palmitate), and, at the same time, causes less irritation. It has been also demonstrated to be more stable than retinol which makes formulating with easier and increases the chances that a product with it will maintain its effectiveness after opening. The packaging should still ideally be air-tight. HPR is available over the counter in the EU, UK, Asia, Australia and New Zealand, but is only with a prescription in Canada.

MORUS BOMBYCIS ROOT EXTRACT

A plant extract that might contain arbutin, a compound that has skin-lightening properties. Might have some anti-oxidant activity. Is unlikely to be effective though in the concentrations typically used in skincare products

TRAMETES VERSICOLOR EXTRACT

A mushroom extract that might have some skin-lightening and moisturizing properties, but solid research is lacking. It is unlikely to be effective in the concentration used in skincare products

DIMETHOXYTOLYL PROPYLRESORCINOL

Can help reduce hyperpigmentation and lighten skin, but additional research is needed to test its effectiveness on human skin

HYDROLYZED RICE BRAN EXTRACT

A plant extract that might contain an active compound orthosilicic acid that could be helpful to regulate the level of pigment in skin, but solid research is lacking

HYDROLYZED YEAST EXTRACT

Helps attract water to the upper layer of the skin and might have some anti-oxidant and skin lightening properties

LACTOBACILLUS/PUMPKIN FERMENT EXTRACT

An enzyme-based exfoliant

VITIS VINIFERA JUICE EXTRACT

Contains AHAs that exfoliate the upper layer of the skin. Can help attract water to the upper layer of the skin due to the sugar content

PHYLLANTHUS EMBLICA FRUIT EXTRACT

A plant extract that might be helpful in neutralizing free radicals and have a skin lightening effect if used in high enough concentrations

LACTOBACILLUS/PUNICA GRANATUM FRUIT FERMENT EXTRACT

An enzyme-based exfoliant

FERULIC ACID

A potent anti-oxidant that has been shown to be effective in neutralizing free radicals in skin. There seem to have a synergetic effect of ferulic acid, vitamin E and C, meaning that when the ingredients are used together, they enhance each other's ability protect the skin against free radicals. Ferulic acid also helps to stabilize other ingredients - including vitamins C and E. It can help to even out the skin tone. Ferulic acid is approved for use as a sunscreen ingredient in Japan in concentrations up to 10%

TETRAHYDROBISDEMETHOXYDIFERULOYLMETHANE

An anti-oxidant derived from curcumin (naturally present in tumeric). It might be helpful in neutralizing free radicals in skin and possibly help even out the skin tone. Can be irritating

TETRAHYDRODEMETHOXYDIFERULOYLMETHANE

An anti-oxidant derived from curcumin (naturally present in tumeric). Is a part of the tetrahydrocurcuminoids complex (THC). The complex might be helpful in neutralizing free radicals in skin and possibly help even out the skin tone. Can be irritating

TETRAHYDRODIFERULOYLMETHANE

An anti-oxidant derived from curcumin (naturally present in tumeric). Is a part of the tetrahydrocurcuminoids complex (THC). The complex might be helpful in neutralizing free radicals in skin and possibly help even out the skin tone. Can be irritating

NELUMBO NUCIFERA EXTRACT

Might be somewhat helpful in protecting elastin in skin and evening skin tone, but good research is lacking. Contains fragrant components and can be irritating.

TAURINE

Could be helpful in reducing inflammation in skin, evening out the skin tone and neutralizing free radicals, but more research is needed to confirm its effectiveness

YEAST EXTRACT

Helps attract water to the upper layer of the skin and might have some anti-oxidant and skin lightening properties. It can help calm down inflammation in skin

MORUS NIGRA ROOT EXTRACT

A plant extract that might help neutralize free radicals in skin and have some skin-lightening effect, but good evidence is missing

LACTOBIONIC ACID

A polyhydroxy acid (PHA) that helps shed dead cells from the surface of the skin revealing a smoother, more even skin. PHAs tend to be gentler on the skin compared to AHAs (for example, glycolic acid). It also has hydrating properties and helps attract water to the upper layer of the skin. It can help calm down inflammation in skin and support restoration of the barrier function. It has an anti-oxidant effect as well. It can help reduce fine line, wrinkles and improve skin elasticity

TETRAHEXYLDECYL ASCORBATE

Being a lipid soluble form of vitamin C, it is more stable. It is claimed to penetrate skin better than pure vitamin C and have the the similar benefits, but solid studies of its effectiveness are lacking. Is likely to require a higher concentration in a product than pure vitamin C to be effective.

ALANINE

An amino-acid that helps to attract water to the upper layer of the skin and might help to lighten the skin, but solid evidence is lacking

GLUCONOLACTONE

A polyhydroxy acid (PHA) that helps shed the dead cells from the skin surface revealing smoother skin. Is believed to be genter than AHAs. It helps attract water to the upper layer of the skin and can stimulate production of skin's own hyaluronic acid resulting in improved hydration levels. It has been shown to be helpful against acne and clogged pores if used consistently (e.g over a period of 12 weeks) in high enough concentration. It can help reduce fine lines and wrinkles and improve skin tone with long-term application. Can help neutralize free radicals

GLYCINE SOJA PROTEIN

A plant extract that helps to attract water to the upper layer of the skin and soften it. It might be helpful in neutralizing free radicals. It might be somewhat helpful for evening out the skin tone. It might be able to support elastin production but solid research is lacking

HYDROLYZED SOY PROTEIN

Helps attract water to the upper layer of the skin. Might have some anti-aging, anti-oxidant, and skin lightening properties, but solid evidence is missing

ZINC GLUCONATE

Typically used to stabilize the product formulations. It is a salt of a polyhydroxy acid (PHA) and in larger concentrations, can help shed the dead cells from the skin surface revealing smoother skin. It can help attract water to the upper layer of the skin. Might to be helpful against acne and clogged pores. Could be helpful in neutralizing free radicals, but solid research is missing. Due to the zinc content, might help calm down inflammation in skin

MALTOBIONIC ACID

A polyhydroxy acid (PHA) that helps shed the dead cells from the skin surface revealing smoother skin. Is genter than AHAs. In addition, it helps attract water to the upper layer of the skin. It has been shown to be helpful against acne and clogged pores. Might help reduce fine lines and wrinkles and improve skin tone with long-term application. Can help neutralize free radicals

PUNICA GRANATUM EXTRACT

A plant extract that can help neutralize free radicals in skin and even out the skin tone, but is typically used in products in a concentration that is too low to be effective

CHRYSIN

Might be helpful in reducing fine lines and wrinkles, as well as lightening the skin, but solid evidence is missing. Could somewhat help in reducing the darkness of the under-eye area. Helps to neutralise free radicals in skin

ELLAGIC ACID

Can help neutralize free radicals in skin. It can help prevent and treat hyperpigmentation and even out the skin tone

ORCHID LEAF/ROOT/STEM EXTRACT

A plant extract that can help even out skin tone and reduce hyperpigmentation when used in high concentration

PINUS PINASTER BARK EXTRACT

A plant extract that might help neutralize free radicals and reduce hyperpigmentation, but evidence of effectiveness in skin is lacking

ETHYL LINOLEATE

Helps reduce acne and blemishes. Helps to soften the upper layer of the skin and reduce inflammation. Might be helpful in reducing hyperpigmentation and evening out the skin tone, but evidence of effectiveness in skin are lacking

HYDROXYPHENOXY PROPIONIC ACID

Helps reduce hypepigmentation and even out the skin tone

RESVERATROL

Helps neutralize free radicals in skin and might help reduce fine lines and wrinkles, as well as even out the skin tone

MANDELIC ACID

Helps shed the upper layer of dead cells from the surface of the skin revealing smoother, brighter skin. It can help to reduce hyperpigmentation. It has anti-bacterial properties, and might help to reduce blemishes, as well as fine lines and wrinkles. It is considered to be gentler than glycolic acid

GLUCONIC ACID

A polyhydroxy acid (PHA) that helps shed the dead cells from the skin surface revealing smoother skin. Is believed to be genter than AHAs. It helps attract water to the upper layer of the skin and can stimulate production of skin's own hyaluronic acid resulting in imporved hydration levels. It has been shown to be helpful against acne and clogged pores. Might help reduce fine lines and wrinkles and improve skin tone with long-term application. Can help neutralize free radicals

CERATONIA SILIQUA FRUIT EXTRACT

Plant extract that might help neutralize free radicals in skin and even out skin tone, but evidence of effectiveness in skin is lacking

GALACTOMYCES FERMENT FILTRATE

A yeast ferment filtrate (also known as Pitera - a trademarked name for the filtrate reserved by the SK-II brand). It helps attract water to the upper layer of the skin, can help neutralize antioxidants and can be helpful in evening out the skin tone. It might be somewhat helpful in preventing premature skin aging but solid evidence is lacking. A small manufacturer study also shows that, when used in high concentrations, it can help reduce sebum production and help against blocked pores

MORUS ALBA BARK EXTRACT

A plant extract that might have anti-oxidant properties and help even out skin tone, but solid evidence is lacking

LACTOBACILLUS/PORTULACA OLERACEA FERMENT EXTRACT

Obtained from fermenting a plant extract with bacteria Lactobacillus. The resulting compound might be able to calm down inflammation and have some anti-oxidant properties, but solid evidence is missing

RETINYL PROPIONATE

Three steps removed from the active form of vitamin A - retinoic acid. To have an effect in the skin, it first needs to be converted twice to become the retinoic acid. This means it is less potent than retinol, but could also be less irritating. Once converted to the retinoic acid in the skin, it helps against all signs of aging, improves skin cell turnover and helps fight blemishes and clogged pores, even thought its potency is not as well established as in case of retinol or retinaldehyde

3-GLYCERYL ASCORBATE

A moisturizing vitamin C derivative. It is considered to be one of the most stable ones. It is effective in neutralizing free radicals and can help to even out the skin tone if used in high enough concentration

3-O-ETHYL ASCORBIC ACID

A vitamin C derivative that is more stable but less potent than pure form of vitamin C. Can help neutralize free radicals and help reduce hyperpigmentation, but the required concentration is likely to be much higher than for the pure form of vitamin C, limiting the ingredient's effectiveness in products

UNDECYLENOYL PHENYLALANINE

An amino-acid based compound that is effective in reducing hyperpigmentation. It can help lighten sun spots and support more even skin tone.

PRUNUS MUME FRUIT EXTRACT

A plant extract that might have an anti-oxidant effect and help even out skin tone, but solid evidence of effectiveness is lacking

CAMELLIA SINENSIS LEAF

Green tea leaf powder that might contain antioxidants to help neutralize free radicals in skin

MADECASSOSIDE

An antioxidant that is typically derived from plant Centella Asiatica. It can help neutralize free radicals in skin and support skin barrier function. It could, however, itself be irritating. It is often unstable in formulations

NIACIN

A form of vitamin B3. It is similar in action to niacinamide, but is more likely to cause red flashes in skin as the side effect

BAKUCHIOL

A plant extract that is, though different in chemical structure, acts similar to retinoids. First studies show that it can help reduce fine lines and wrinkles, improve skin tone, reduce clogged pores and blemishes, and reduce inflammation. There is no conclusive evidence that bakuchiol is as effective as retinol however. The study that directly compared retinol with bakuchiol used bakuchiol applied twice daily compared to once per day for the retinol. According to this study, bakuchiol is less irritating than retinol. Bakuchiol is extracted from seeds of Babchi plant. Other parts of the plant contain coumarins that could cause allergic and irritant reactions. These compounds should be removed in the extraction process when bakuchiol is produced, but it is a good idea to be cautious and stay away from products that include the Babchi plant extracts other than purified bakuchiol to avoid irritation

ADAPALENE

A retinoid that is effective against acne and keratosis pilaris. It can also help reduce signs of aging (fine lines, wrinkles, loss of elasticity) and can improve skin tone

AZELAIC ACID

Is produced by a yeast that lives on normal human skin. It is used in medicine as a topical treatment for mild to moderate acne. It has a mild exfoliating effect. It can also help reduce hyperpigmentation, helps calm down inflammation and can help neutralize free radicals

TRANEXAMIC ACID

An amino acid that is effective in reducing hyperpigmentation and evening out the skin tone

HEXYLRESORCINOL

Might be helpful in reducing hyperpigmentation and neutralizing free radicals in skin

PHENYLETHYL RESORCINOL

Might help reduce hyperpigmentation in skin and help neutralize free radicals

CAPRYLOYL SALICYLIC ACID

KOJIC ACID

Helps to reduce hyperpigmentation and neutralize free radicals. Can be irritating

RETINYL LINOLEATE

An ester of a retinoid and linoleic acid. Three steps removed from the bioactive form of retinoid, retinoic acid. Once converted to retinoic acid in skin, it can help reduce wrinkles, stimulate collagen production, even out skin tone and reduce blemishes. The concentrations used in cosmetic products are often not high enough to have a positive effect in skin.

NARCISSUS TAZETTA BULB EXTRACT

Might contain compounds called dormins that in theory could help lighten skin and reduce hyperpigmentation, but solid research is lacking

GLYCYRRHIZA INFLATA ROOT EXTRACT

A plant extract that can help lighten the skin and calm down inflammation. Might be helpful in neutralizing free radicals

BIFIDA FERMENT LYSATE

Consists of remains of dead yeast bacteria cells. Helps to hydrate the skin and reduce irritation. Might has some anti-oxidant effect

POLYPODIUM LEUCOTOMOS LEAF EXTRACT

A plant extract that has been shown to be effective in helping boost skin's ability to protect against UV radiation and reduce hyperpigmentation when taken orally. No conclusive evidence for its effectiveness and effective concentration in topical application

ALPHA-ARBUTIN

Might help reduce hyperpigmentation when used regularly over a long period of time. Is more effective than beta-arbutin

VIGNA RADIATA SEED EXTRACT

Bean extract that in theory might help to reduce hyperpigmentation, but evidence of effectiveness in skin are missing

GLYCYRRHIZA URALENSIS ROOT EXTRACT

Licorice root extract. Might be helpful in reducing hyperpigmentation

ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN BARK EXTRACT

A plant extract that might help to neutralize free radicals in skin. Is claimed to help reduce hyperpigmentation but evidence is missing

ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN BARK/SEED EXTRACT

A plant extract that might help to neutralize free radicals in skin. Is claimed to help reduce hyperpigmentation but evidence is missing

ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN BRANCH/LEAF EXTRACT

A plant extract that might help to neutralize free radicals in skin. Is claimed to help reduce hyperpigmentation but evidence is missing

ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN FLOWER EXTRACT

A plant extract that might help to neutralize free radicals in skin. Is claimed to help reduce hyperpigmentation but evidence is missing

ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN SEED EXTRACT

A plant extract that might help to neutralize free radicals in skin. Is claimed to help reduce hyperpigmentation but evidence is missing

PANCRATIUM MARITIMUM EXTRACT

A plant extract that might help neutralize free radicals in skin. It might help reduce hyperpigmentation

EMBLICA OFFICINALIS FRUIT EXTRACT

A plant extract that might be helping in neutralizing free radicals in skin. It could help reduce hyperpigmentation. There is some research to confirm its effectiveness in skin

PAEONIA LACTIFLORA ROOT EXTRACT

A plant extract that might help neutralize free radicals and reduce hyperpigmentation, but the research on its effectiveness in skin is lacking

POTASSIUM AZELOYL DIGLYCINATE

A derivative of azelaic acid. It is obtained by reacting the chloride of azelaic acid with two molecules of glycine (an amino acid) and potassium hydroxide. It is less studied than azelaic acid, but the available research suggests that it also can be effective in reducing skin redness, hyperpigmentation and blemishes. There are claims that it is more bio-available and more effective than azelaic acid, but no comparison study is available. Potassium azeloyl diglycinate is better soluble in water compared with azelaic acid. Because of this property, products with potassium azeloyl digclycinate can have a nicer texture

GLUTATHIONE

A peptide that can help neutralize free radicals in skin and reduce melanin production resulting in skin lightening effect and reduction in hyperpigmentation. It can also help attract moisture to the upper layer of the skin

ISOQUERCITRIN

Antioxidant that might help reduce free radicals and reduce melanin production, but more research is needed to understand if it is effective in skin

SALICYLIC ACID

Used for skin exfoliation. It has an anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial effect, helps to unclog pores, prevent blemishes and speed up healing of the existing ones. Sometimes referred to as a BHA (beta-hydroxy acid)

CYSTEINE

Might help neutralize free radicals in skin and might be helpful against hyperpigmentation

DIMETHYLMETHOXY CHROMANYL PALMITATE

An oil-soluble compound that has been shown in laboratory studies (in a petri dish, not on human volunteers) to inhibit melanin production in skin and help even out the skin tone. More research is needed to understand if it works in real life

Tretinoin

Bioavailable form of Vitamin A that is the most effective known topical ingredients for reducing wrinkles, improving skin firmness, treating acne, as well as hyperpigmentation. It is not available over-the counter in many countries, including US and UK

POTASSIUM METHOXYSALICYLATE

Can help reduce hyperpigmentation

EPIGALLOCATECHIN GALLATE

A polyphenol found in tea. This particular compound abbreviated EGCG is the most powerful antioxidant among those extracted from tea (usually green tea). Unfortunately, EGCG is unstable, requires a low pH (below 4) to prevent quick degradation, and does not penetrate the skin very well. This is why the full anti-oxidant effect of EGCG is typically not realized when it is added to topical skincare

ARBUTIN

Beta-arbutin. Can help to reduce hyperpigmentation and has an anti-oxidant effect when used in high enough concentration. Is less effective compared to alpha-arbutin

RETINYL RETINOATE

A "hybrid" of retinol and retinoic acid. It is more stable than retinol and is likely to be more effective based on the early research data available. Is as irritating as retinol

RETINAL

One step removed from the biologically active in skin form of vitamin A. Once converted to the retinoic acid in the skin, retinal is proven to be effective against all signs of aging. It improves skin cell turnover, helps fight blemishes and clogged pores, can regulate excess oil production and even skin tone. Concentrations of 0.05% and 0.1% are shown to be effective. It can, however, be irritating

RETINOL

Two steps removed from the active form of vitamin A - retinoic acid. Once converted to the retinoic acid in the skin, retinol is proven to be effective against all signs of aging. It improves skin cell turnover, helps fight blemishes and clogged pores, can regulate excess oil production and even skin tone. It can, however, be quite irritating

ASCORBIC ACID

The most well-researched antioxidant that works in skin. Helps neutralize free radicals supporting collagen production, helping to even out the skin tone and preventing early signs of aging

ISOBUTYLAMIDO THIAZOLYL RESORCINOL

Sometimes referred to as Thiamidol (patented by Beiersdorf). A compound that can reduce melanin production in skin. Can help to fade pigmentation spots quicker and even out the skin tone. It is a relatively new compound and the research on it is ongoing. The first studies show that it might be as effective in reducing hyperpigmentation as hydroquinone but with fewer side effects

HYDROQUINONE

COPPER GLUCONATE

Typically used to stabilize the product formulations. It is a salt of polyhydroxy acid (PHA) and in larger concentrations, can help shed the dead cells from the skin surface revealing smoother skin. It can help attract water to the upper layer of the skin. Might to be helpful against acne and clogged pores. Could be helpful in neutralizing free radicals, but solid research is missing

RESVERATROL DIMETHYL ETHER

A more stable derivative of anti-oxidant resveratrol. There is not enough research to confirm its efficacy in skin

ASPERGILLUS FERMENT

An extract from fungus (mold) that typically appears on rice. It can help attract water to the upper layer of the skin, might help neutralize free radicals and possibly somewhat reduce hyperpigmentation